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Liber XXXVI · Zoroastrianism

Liber XXXVI · Zoroastrianism · Chapter III: Fire Temples & Ritual

Towers of Silence: Zoroastrian Funeral Customs and the Dakhma

The towers of silence explained: why Zoroastrians exposed the dead in the dakhma, the funeral rites, the history in Iran and Mumbai, and the vulture crisis.

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The towers of silence, or dakhmas, are circular stone enclosures in which Zoroastrians traditionally laid out their dead to be consumed by vultures and dried by the sun, so that the corpse, regarded as the most polluting of substances, would not defile the sacred elements of earth, fire and water. The custom of exposure is ancient, the built towers are medieval and modern, and today the practice survives mainly among the Parsis of India, where the collapse of vulture populations has made it the subject of intense debate.

Death and Pollution in Zoroastrian Belief§

In Zoroastrian thought death is not part of the good creation. It is the work of Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the destructive spirit, and the moment of death is the moment of his greatest apparent victory over a human being (see Ahura Mazda and cosmic dualism). The Videvdad, the Avestan "law against the demons", teaches that as soon as the soul departs, the corpse demon, the druj nasu, imagined as a fly, rushes upon the body and spreads contagion to anyone and anything that touches it.

Because fire, water and earth are sacred creations, they must be shielded from this pollution. Burying a corpse defiles the earth; burning it defiles fire; throwing it into water defiles water. The Videvdad therefore instructs that the dead be carried to high places where corpse-eating dogs and birds can see them, and that the bones afterwards be gathered into an ossuary away from rain and animals. This is the religious logic of the towers: the body is given to birds and sun, which were thought to reduce it quickly and cleanly, and the elements are kept pure. Ritual purity in general is described in Zoroastrian fire temples and ritual.

From Open Exposure to the Dakhma§

Herodotus, writing around 430 BCE, reported that the Magi did not bury a body until it had been torn by a bird or a dog, while other Persians coated corpses in wax and buried them (Histories 1.140). Achaemenid kings were laid in rock-cut tombs, such as those at Naqsh-e Rustam near Persepolis, which kept the body off the earth; whether this reflects Zoroastrian purity concerns or royal custom is debated. In eastern Iran and Central Asia, archaeologists have found many ceramic and stone ossuaries (astodans), some richly painted, from the period before the Islamic conquest, showing that exposure followed by the collection of bones was widespread.

Early exposure probably took place on bare hilltops or in walled enclosures. The tall, circular stone towers familiar from photographs are attested mainly from the Islamic period onwards. In Iran, the hills outside Yazd and Kerman still carry the ruined towers of the old communities. In India, the Parsis built dakhmas near each settlement after their migration from Iran; the most famous are at Doongerwadi on Malabar Hill in Mumbai, set in a wooded garden, the first of which is usually dated to the late seventeenth century.

The structure of a dakhma§

A classic Parsi dakhma is a low, wide cylinder of stone open to the sky. Inside, a sloping platform is divided into three concentric rings of shallow compartments (pavis): the outer ring for men, the middle for women and the inner for children. At the centre is a deep well (bhandar). Once the birds and sun have done their work, which in the past took a few days, the bones are swept into the central well, where they crumble with time and lime; rainwater drains through layers of sand and charcoal before leaving the tower. No one but the specially trained corpse-bearers enters.

The Zoroastrian Funeral Rites§

The funeral is a sequence of rites designed to protect the living, to contain pollution and to accompany the soul. They are described in detail in J. J. Modi's classic account of Parsi ceremonies and vary somewhat between India and Iran.

Preparing the body§

After death the body is washed, clothed in a clean white sudreh (sacred shirt) and tied with the kusti (sacred cord) by relatives, then laid on a stone slab in a separate area of the house or funeral bungalow. A fire is kept burning nearby, fed with sandalwood and frankincense, and a priest recites prayers. A circle is drawn around the body to mark the boundary of pollution.

The sagdid and the procession§

A dog is brought to look upon the body, the rite called sagdid, "dog's sight". Traditionally a dog with two spots above its eyes, the "four-eyed dog", was preferred, since the dog's gaze was believed to drive back the corpse demon. The body is carried to the tower by professional corpse-bearers (nasasalars), who work in pairs joined by a cloth or cord, a bond known as paiwand. Mourners follow, also in pairs, dressed in white and holding a cloth between them. Funerals are held in daylight, as the sun is regarded as a purifier.

The ceremonies for the soul§

Prayers continue for three days, while the soul is believed to linger near the body. On the third day the uthamna ceremony is held, and at the dawn of the fourth day the chaharum rites mark the soul's passage across the Chinvat Bridge to judgment, described in Zoroastrian eschatology. Further ceremonies follow on the tenth and thirtieth days and on the anniversary, and the dead are remembered each year during the Muktad, the days of the fravashis at the end of the year.

The End of the Towers in Iran§

In Iran exposure declined over the twentieth century. Urbanisation, modern ideas of hygiene, the influence of reformers in the Tehran community and the encroachment of cities on the old towers all played a part. Zoroastrians in Tehran opened a cemetery in the first half of the century, and other communities followed. To respect purity rules, graves are often lined with stone or cement so that the body does not touch the earth directly. The towers of Yazd were abandoned in the later twentieth century and are now protected heritage sites visited by tourists. Most Iranian Zoroastrians accept burial today, although the ideal of not defiling the earth remains part of how it is carried out.

The Vulture Crisis and the Debate in India§

In India the towers remained in use, but in the 1990s the vulture populations of South Asia collapsed. Research in the early 2000s traced the decline to diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory drug given to cattle, which is lethal to vultures that feed on the carcasses; some species fell by more than ninety-five per cent before the veterinary drug was banned in 2006. Without vultures, bodies at Doongerwadi decomposed slowly, raising distress among families and complaints from neighbours.

The Parsi community responded in several ways. Solar concentrators were installed on some towers to speed decomposition, and plans for a vulture aviary were discussed for years. Many Parsis, especially reformists, chose cremation, and in 2015 a prayer hall at the Worli crematorium in Mumbai began to offer Zoroastrian rites for those who were cremated. Some orthodox priests and trustees opposed these changes, holding that only the dakhma fulfils the religious law. During the COVID-19 pandemic, health regulations for the disposal of bodies brought the issue before the courts. In the diaspora, where no towers exist, Zoroastrians bury or cremate their dead, often in dedicated sections of cemeteries. The wider situation of the community is described in Parsis and modern Zoroastrianism.

Interpretations and Meaning§

Defenders of the dakhma describe it as an ecological and egalitarian practice: rich and poor are laid side by side, nothing is wasted, and the body serves a final act of charity by feeding living creatures. Critics, including some Zoroastrians, see it as unsuited to modern cities and to the absence of birds, and argue that the purpose of the law — protecting the elements — can be met by other means. Comparativists often place exposure alongside other excarnation customs, such as Tibetan "sky burial", though the religious reasons differ. Across these debates the core conviction is shared: that death belongs to the hostile spirit, and that the living must guard the good creation from its touch while caring for the departing soul.

Frequently asked questions§

Why do Zoroastrians use towers of silence?§

Because Zoroastrian law regards a corpse as highly polluting, and burial, cremation or casting into water would defile the sacred elements of earth, fire and water. Exposing the body to vultures and the sun was believed to dispose of it without polluting them.

Are towers of silence still used?§

Yes, by some Parsis in India, especially at Doongerwadi in Mumbai, although many now choose cremation or burial because of the decline of vultures. Iranian Zoroastrians largely stopped using the towers during the twentieth century, and diaspora communities bury or cremate.

What is the sagdid?§

The sagdid ("dog's sight") is the rite in which a dog is brought to look at the body. Its gaze was believed to drive away the corpse demon, Nasu. Traditionally a dog with spots above its eyes, the "four-eyed dog", was preferred.

Sources and further reading§